Concrete can be one of the most durable building materials and structures made of concrete can have a long service life. Concrete is a composite construction material composed primarily of aggregate, cement, and water. It provides superior fire resistance, compared with wooden construction and can gain strength over time. Further, as it is used as liquid that subsequently hardens it can be formed into complex geometries and may poured either directly into formworks at the construction sites (so called ready mix concrete) or employed remotely to pre-build concrete elements and structures. Overall concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world with an annual consumption estimated at approximately 30 billion tons in 2006, compared to 2 billion in 1950. During the next 5 years concrete consumption is estimated to grow with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) between 6% and 9% according to market forecasts of cement and concrete admixtures globally over the period 2012 to 2017 such that the 30 billion ton consumption will increase to approximately 40 billion tons.
There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main ingredients of cement, aggregate, and water as well as reinforcement means, chemical admixtures, and mineral admixtures. In this way or by substitution for the cemetitious and aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application with varying strength, density, or chemical and thermal resistance properties. Examples of chemical admixtures include accelerators to speed up the hardening of concrete, retarders to slow the hardening of concrete for large or difficult pours, air entrainments to capture air bubbles, plasticizers to increase workability, pigments for colour, corrosion inhibitors, bonding agents and pumping aids. Recently the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants. This use reduces the amount of quarrying and landfill space required as the ash acts as a cement replacement thus reducing the amount of cement required.
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads. Thereafter the concrete is reinforced to withstand the tensile loads upon it. Due to their low cost and wide availability steel reinforcing bar (commonly referred to as rebar) has been the dominant reinforcing material for the past 50 years. However, these steel rebars may corrode whereby the oxidation products (rust) expand and tend to flake, thereby cracking the concrete and reducing the bonding between the rebar and the concrete. Such corrosion may arise from several sources including carbonation when the surface of concrete is exposed to high concentration of carbon dioxide or chlorides, such as when the concrete structure is in contact with a chloride-contaminated environment such as arises with de-icing salts and marine environment.
Chlorides, including sodium chloride, contribute to the initiation of corrosion in embedded steel rebar if present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion (pitting corrosion) and generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. Accordingly, the quality of water used for mixing concrete becomes important, as does ensuring that the coarse and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides, and nor do any admixtures contain chlorides. However, it was once common for calcium chloride to be used as an admixture to promote rapid setting of the concrete as it was also mistakenly believed to prevent freezing. However, this practice has fallen into disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known, but a significant portion of existing concrete infrastructure employed calcium chloride. Additionally, the use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to reduce the freezing point of water, probably to date has been one of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or pre-stressed concrete bridge decks, roadways, and parking garages.
Corrosion is an electro-chemical process. Accordingly, the flow rate of the ions between the anode and cathode areas, and therefore the rate at which corrosion can occur, is affected by the resistivity of the concrete. Empirical tests comparing electrical resistivity (p) measurements with other physical and chemical analysis have generated threshold values with the prior art for determining the wherein if ρ>120 Ω·m corrosion is deemed unlikely, if ρ<80 Ω·m then corrosion is fairly certain, and where 80 Ω·m≤ρ≤120 Ω·m corrosion is possible. However, these values have to be used cautiously as there is strong evidence that chloride diffusion and surface electrical resistivity are dependent on other factors such as mix composition and age. Further, the electrical resistivity of the concrete cover layer decreases due to increasing concrete water content, increasing concrete porosity, increasing temperature, increasing chloride content, and decreasing carbonation depth. However, as an overall industry rule when the electrical resistivity of the concrete is low, the rate of corrosion increases. When the electrical resistivity is high, e.g. in case of dry and carbonated concrete, the rate of corrosion decreases.
Laboratory based measurements of electrical resistivity may exploit two electrode methods wherein the concrete electrical resistance is measured by applying a current using two electrodes attached to the ends of a uniform cross-section specimen and electrical resistivity calculated. This method suffers from the disadvantage that contact resistance can significantly add to the measured resistance causing inaccuracy. Accordingly, on-site electrical resistivity of concrete is commonly measured using four probes in what is known as a Wenner array which is used for the same reason as in the laboratory methods, namely to overcome contact errors. In this method four equally spaced probes are applied to the specimen in a line. The two outer probes induce the current to the specimen and the two inner electrodes measure the resulting potential drop. The probes are all applied to the same surface of the specimen and the method is consequently suitable for measuring the resistivity of bulk concrete in situ. Less commonly employed is a transformer to measure resistivity without any direct contact with the specimen. The transformer consists of a primary coil which energises the circuit with an AC voltage and a secondary which is formed by a toroid of the concrete sample.
However, it would be evident that for the US alone with over 600,000 concrete bridges and their associated support piers together with 55,000 miles of concrete road surface and billions of tons of concrete in buildings represent a significant measurement hurdle in terms of establishing protocols for rapid testing as well as associating the measurements specifically to particular elements of the physical infrastructure being evaluated. This is without considering all of the other elements of infrastructure built using concrete such as aqueducts, viaducts, railway bridges, pedestrian bridges, underground railways, subways, and buildings for example.
Accordingly, it would be beneficial for a field characterization system to automatically triangulate the location of the electrical resistivity device so that mapping of a structure can be performed without requiring an initial mapping of the structure to define measurement locations. It would be evident that erroneous association of electrical resistivity measurements to the wrong section of a structure may result in substantial disruption, such as closing the wrong side of a bridge to perform repairs where it then becomes evident the other side was actually corroding as the repairs having destroyed the road surface to get to the rebars find them non-corroded. Further, such erroneous activities substantially increase the overall costs of performing repairs straining already limited Federal and State budgets for example.
In other circumstances the concrete may have been covered with asphalt as a result of road resurfacing, repairs, etc. Accordingly, there is the problem of making quick and reproducible contact to the concrete through these overlying materials. It would therefore be beneficial to provide a means of improving this contact in such a manner. Likewise, it is the low frequency impedance of rebar in concrete that is correlated to the corrosion state of the steel reinforcement rods within the concrete. Accordingly, the direct measurement of the low frequency impedance of the rebar is a very time consuming measurement and one that is vulnerable to noise. As such, this low frequency technique is not easy to use in the field which is why commercial prior art electrical resistivity meters employ AC measurements of electrical resistivity at certain high enough frequencies. Hence, it would be beneficial to provide a means of making the electrical resistivity measurements that allows the low frequency resistivity to be derived from the measurements thereby improving determination of corrosion whilst reducing measurement times.
Likewise, prior art techniques for measuring the electrical resistivity of rebar, such as half-cell potential measurements, require that electrical connection is made to the rebar in contrast to concrete electrical resistivity measurements that determine the properties of the concrete surrounding the rebar. Accordingly, this requirement increases the complexity of making the measurements and requiring additional disruption/repair/cost even when no corrosion is identified. However, in many instances this is not feasible such as with epoxy coated steel rebar which is intended to reduce the occurrences of corrosion but as the rebars are electrically isolated from each other half-cell potential measurements are infeasible. As such it would be beneficial to provide a method of determining the state of rebar without requiring an electrical contact to the rebar with in the concrete infrastructure.
Just as the exploitation of concrete increased over the past 50 years then so have the requirements on it as engineering structures continue to push new boundaries of higher buildings, longer bridges, larger dams, artificial islands etc. Further disasters with poor concrete etc. have led to stricter regulation and compliance requirements. Accordingly, today the concrete industry faces competing demands for faster construction, shorter durations of formwork use, cost reductions whilst ensuring safety and quality are met or exceeded. As such testing techniques for concrete have evolved and will continue to evolve to meet these requirements. However, many of these techniques require samples be taken, full extended curing of the concrete performed, or simple mechanical tests be performed on site with the concrete being delivered.
However, it would be beneficial to provide concrete suppliers, construction companies, regulators, architects, and others requiring data regarding the cure, performance, corrosion of concrete at different points in its life cycle with a series of simple electrical tests that removed subjectivity, allowed for rapid assessment, were integrable to the construction process, and provided full life cycle assessment.
For large construction projects contractors order pre-mixed concrete, known as ready mix concrete, and this dominates sales with approximately 70% of the U.S cement use in 2014. However, approximately 4% of the U.S. cement sales in 2014 were through building materials dealers such as national chains such as Home Depot™, Lowes™, Payless Cashway™ etc. to local and regional building material suppliers. With a total U.S. cement market in 2014 of approximately 90 million metric tons this represents 3.6 million metric tons of cement sold in a range of bag sizes from 20 kg to just over 40 kg. Assuming 33.3 kg average bag weight this represents the equivalent of 30 bags per ton or approximately 110 million bags of cement. In addition to these cement sales there were also additional sales of bagged concrete and mortar on top of these figures.
These are used in a wide range of projects including residential and commercial structures subject to planning permission and other municipal/state/national requirements. However, whilst quality controls are applied by the manufacturers and constructors with ready mix concrete no such controls are generally applied when bag cement is used. This arises as, whilst testing techniques for concrete have evolved and will continue to evolve to meet requirements for faster construction, shorter durations of formwork use, and cost reductions, many of these techniques require samples be taken, fully extended curing of the concrete achieved, and laboratory measurements/testing performed. Typically, even the simple mechanical tests such as the slump test are not performed on site.
Accordingly, it would be beneficial to provide building owners, insurers, contractors, regulatory authorities, architects, and others with data regarding the cure and performance of concrete made on site with bagged cement or bagged concrete mixes. It would be further beneficial for the necessary measurements and calculations to be automatically performed with a self-contained data acquisition/logging module added to the concrete which wirelessly communicates to a portable electronic device during installation and/or during lifetime of the concrete structure formed.
It would be further beneficial for such automated testing/characterization using self-contained data acquisition/logging modules to be employed/compatible with other products during their manufacturing, deployment and lifetime.
Other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying figures.